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Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been a need to keep crops free from pests. In order to maximize food production, it is advantageous to protect crops from competing species of plants, as well as from herbivores competing with humans.

The conventional approach was probably the first to be employed, since it is comparatively easy to destroy weeds by burning them or plowing them under, and to kill larger competing herbivores, such as crows and other birds eating seeds. Techniques such as crop rotation, companion planting (also known as intercropping or mixed cropping), and the selective breeding of pest-resistant cultivars have a long history.

In the UK, following concern about animal welfare, humane pest control and deterrence is gaining ground through the use of animal psychology rather than destruction. For instance, with the urban Red Fox which territorial behaviour is used against the animal, usually in conjunction with non-injurious chemical repellents. In rural areas of Britain, the use of firearms for pest control is quite common. Airguns are particularly popular for control of small pests such as rats, rabbits and grey squirrels, because of their lower power they can be used in more restrictive spaces such as gardens, where using a firearm would be unsafe.

Chemical pesticides date back 4,500 years, when the Sumerians used sulfur compounds as insecticides. The Rig Veda, which is about 4,000 years old, also mentions the use of poisonous plants for pest control. It was only with the industrialization and mechanization of agriculture in the 18th and 19th century, and the introduction of the insecticides pyrethrum and derris that chemical pest control became widespread. In the 20th century, the discovery of several synthetic insecticides, such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this development. Chemical pest control is still the predominant type of pest control today, although its long-term effects led to a renewed interest in traditional and biological pest control towards the end of the 20th century.

[edit] Causes
Sign in Ilfracombe, England designed to help control seagull presenceMany pests have only become a problem because of the direct actions of humans. Modifying these actions can often substantially reduce the pest problem. In the United States, raccoons caused a nuisance by tearing open refuse sacks. Many householders introduced bins with locking lids, which deterred the raccoons from visiting. House flies tend to accumulate wherever there is human activity and is virtually a global phenomenon, especially where food or food waste is exposed. Similarly, seagulls have become pests at many seaside resorts. Tourists would often feed the birds with scraps of fish and chips, and before long, the birds would become dependent on this food source and act aggressively towards humans.

Living organisms evolve and increase their resistance to biological, chemical, physical or any other form of control. Unless the target population is completely exterminated or is rendered incapable of reproduction, the surviving population will inevitably acquire a tolerance of whatever pressures are brought to bear - this results in an evolutionary arms race.

[edit] Types of pest control[edit] Biological pest controlMain article: Biological pest control
Biological pest control is the control of one through the control and management of natural predators and parasites. For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, a bacterium that infects and kills mosquito larvae, in local water sources. The treatment has no known negative consequences on the remaining ecology and is safe for humans to drink. The point of biological pest control, or any natural pest control, is to eliminate a pest with minimal harm to the ecological balance of the environment in its present form.[1]

[edit] Elimination of breeding groundsProper waste management and drainage of still water, eliminates the breeding ground of many pests.

Garbage provides food and shelter for many unwanted organisms, as well as an area where still water might collect and be used as a breeding ground by mosquitoes. Communities that have proper garbage collection and disposal, have far less of a problem with rats, cockroaches, mosquitoes, flies and other pests than those that don't.

Open air sewers are ample breeding ground for various pests as well. By building and maintaining a proper sewer system, this problem is eliminated.

[edit] Poisoned baitPoisoned bait is a common method for controlling rat populations, however is not as effective when there are other food sources around, such as garbage. Poisoned meats have been used for centuries for killing off wolves, birds that were seen to threaten crops, and against other creatures. this tool is also used to manage several caterpillars eg.Spodoptera litura,fruit flies,snails and slugs,crabs etc..

[edit] Field burningTraditionally, after a sugar cane harvest, the fields are all burned, to kill off any insects or eggs that might be in the fields.

[edit] HuntingHistorically, in some European countries, when stray dogs and cats became too numerous, local populations gathered together to round up all animals that did not appear to have an owner and kill them. In some nations, teams of rat catchers work at chasing rats from the field, and killing them with dogs and simple hand tools. Some communities have in the past employed a bounty system, where a town clerk will pay a set fee for every rat head brought in as proof of a rat killing.

[edit] TrapsTraps have been used for killing off mice found in houses, for killing wolves, and for capturing raccoons and stray cats and dogs for disposal by town officials.

[edit] Poison spraySpraying poisons by planes, hand held units, or trucks that carry the spraying equipment, is a common method of pest control. Throughout the United States of America, towns often drive a town owned truck around once or twice a week to each street, spraying for mosquitoes. Crop dusters commonly fly over farmland and spray poison to kill off pest that would threaten the crops. Many find spraying poison around their yard, homes, or businesses, far more desirable than allowing insects to thrive there.

[edit] Space fumigationA project that involves a structure be covered or sealed airtight followed by the introduction of a penetrating, deadly gas at a killing concentration a long period of time (24-72hrs.). Although expensive, space fumigation targets all life stages of pests.[2]

[edit] Space treatment
Residential & commercial building pest control service vehicle, Ypsilanti Township, MichiganA long term project involving fogging or misting type applicators. Liquid insecticide is dispersed in the atmosphere within a structure. Treatments do not require the evacuation or airtight sealing of a building, allowing most work within the building to continue but at the cost of the penetrating effects. Contact insecticides are generally used, minimizing the long lasting residual effects. On August 10, 1973, the Federal Register printed the definition of Space treatment as defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency‎ (EPA):[2]

“ the dispersal of insecticides into the air by foggers, misters, aerosol devices or vapor dispensers for control of flying insects and exposed crawling insects ”

[edit] SterilizationLaboratory studies conducted with U-5897 (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) where attempted in the early 1970s although these proved unsuccessful.[3] Research into sterilization bait is ongoing.

Another effective method of soil sterilization is soil steaming. Pest is killed through hot steam which is induced into the soil.

[edit] Destruction of infected plantsForest services sometimes destroy all the trees in an area where some are infected with insects, if seen as necessary to prevent the insect species from spreading. Farms infested with certain insects, have been burned entirely, to prevent the pest from spreading elsewhere.

[edit] Natural rodent controlSeveral wildlife rehabilitation organizations encourage natural form of rodent control through exclusion and predator support and preventing secondary poisoning altogether.[4]

The United States Environmental Protection Agency‎ agrees, noting in its Proposed Risk Mitigation Decision for Nine Rodenticides that “without habitat modification to make areas less attractive to commensal rodents, even eradication will not prevent new populations from recolonizing the habitat.”[5]

[edit] RepellentsBalsam fir oil from the tree Abies balsamea is an EPA approved non-toxic rodent repellent.[6]
Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha root emits chemical compounds that repel animals including crocodiles, snakes and rats.[7][8]
[edit] See alsoAnimal repellent
Association of Natural Biocontrol Producers
Bird control spike
Crop rotation
Disease control
E B Meyer Inc.
Insect repellent
Insectary plants
International Organization for Biological Control
Inundative application
Invasive species
List of common household pests
List of politically endorsed exterminations of animals
Mosquito control
National Pest Technicians Association (in the UK)
Pesticide application
Pesticide control
Poison shyness
Radio wave pest control
Rat-catcher
Rat trap
Rat baiting
Remote-controlled animal
Sterile insect technique
Varmint hunting
Weed control
Wildlife management
Residential Pest Control
[edit] References1.^ "Bacillus thuringienis Factsheet". Colorado State University. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/insect/05556.html. Retrieved 2010-06-02.
2.^ a b Fred Baur. Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing. American Association of Cereal Chemists. ISBN 0913250384.
3.^ Alan M. Bowerman & Joe E. Brooks (1971). "Evaluation of U-5897 as a male chemosterilant for rat control". Journal of Wildlife Management 35 (4): 618–624. doi:10.2307/3799765. JSTOR 3799765.
4.^ WildcareBayArea.org (http://www.wildcarebayarea.org/site/PageServer?pagename=TakeAction_Rodenticide)
5.^ Rodenticides | Pesticides | US EPA
6.^ Balsam fir oil (129035) Fact Sheet | Pesticides | US EPA
7.^ PlantzAfrica
8.^ World AgroForestry Centre
[edit] External linksGlobal-solutions pest free solutions
National Pest Management Association
Pest control tactics
Pesticide application network
Association of Natural Biocontrol Producers - trade association of the biological control industry
Pest management information from Preservation Department of Stanford University Libraries
National Pest Technicians Association,England U.K
Pest Exterminator
UF/IFAS Pest Alert Web site - arthropods, nematodes and plant diseases affecting humans, livestock/pets, agricultural and ornamental plants
v · d · ePest control: insecticides

Carbamates Aldicarb · Bendiocarb · Carbaryl · Carbofuran · Ethienocarb · Fenobucarb · Propoxur

Inorganic compounds Aluminium phosphide · Boric acid · Chromated copper arsenate · Copper(II) arsenate · Copper(I) cyanide · Diatomaceous earth · Lead hydrogen arsenate · Paris Green · Scheele's Green

Organochlorides Aldrin · Beta-HCH · Carbon tetrachloride · Chlordane · Cyclodiene · 1,2-DCB · 1,4-DCB · 1,1-DCE · 1,2-DCE · DDD · DDE · DDT · Dicofol · Dieldrin · Endosulfan · Endrin · Heptachlor · Kepone · Lindane · Methoxychlor · Mirex · Tetradifon · Toxaphene

Organophosphorus Acephate · Azinphos-methyl · Bensulide · Chlorethoxyfos · Chlorfenvinphos · Chlorpyrifos · Chlorpyrifos-methyl · Coumaphos · Demeton-S-methyl · Diazinon · Dicrotophos · Diisopropyl fluorophosphate · Dimethoate · Dioxathion · Disulfoton · Ethion · Ethoprop · Fenamiphos · Fenitrothion · Fenthion · Fosthiazate · Isoxathion · Malathion · Methamidophos · Methidathion · Mevinphos · Monocrotophos · Naled · Omethoate · Oxydemeton-methyl · Parathion · Parathion-methyl · Phorate · Phosalone · Phosmet · Phostebupirim · Phoxim · Pirimiphos-methyl · Temefos · Terbufos · Tetrachlorvinphos · Tribufos · Trichlorfon

Pyrethroids Allethrins · Bifenthrin · Bioallethrin · Cyfluthrin · Cyhalothrin · Cypermethrin · Cyphenothrin · Deltamethrin · Empenthrin · Etofenprox · Fenvalerate · Imiprothrin · Metofluthrin · Permethrin · Phenothrin · Prallethrin · Pyrethrin (I, II; chrysanthemic acid) · Pyrethrum · Resmethrin · Silafluofen · Tefluthrin · Tetramethrin · Tralomethrin · Transfluthrin

Neonicotinoids Acetamiprid · Clothianidin · Dinotefuran · Imidacloprid · Nitenpyram · Nithiazine · Thiacloprid · Thiamethoxam

Other chemicals Amitraz · Azadirachtin · Chlordimeform · Chlorfenapyr · Cyromazine · Diflubenzuron · Fenazaquin · Fenoxycarb · Fipronil · Flufenoxuron · Hydramethylnon · Indoxacarb · Limonene · Lufenuron · Methoprene · Pyridaben · Pyriprole · Pyriproxyfen · Ryanodine · Sesamex · Spinosad · Sulfluramid · Tebufenpyrad · Veracevine · Xanthone

Metabolites Oxon · Malaoxon · Paraoxon · TCPy

Biopesticides Bacillus thuringiensis · Baculovirus · Beauveria bassiana · Beauveria brongniartii · Metarhizium acridum · Metarhizium anisopliae · Lecanicillium lecanii · Paecilomyces fumosoroseus · Paenibacillus popilliae

v · d · ePest control: rodenticides

Anticoagulants/
vitamin K antagonists coumarins/4-Hydroxycoumarins: 1st generation (Warfarin, Coumatetralyl) • 2nd generation (Brodifacoum, Difenacoum, Flocoumafen)

1,3-Indandiones: Chlorophacinone • Pindone • Diphacinone

other: Difethialone

Convulsants Crimidine • Phenylsilatrane • Strychnine • Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine

Calciferols Cholecalciferol • Ergocalciferol

Inorganic compounds Aluminium phosphide • Arsenic • Barium carbonate • Calcium phosphide • Cyanide • Thallium • Zinc phosphide

Organochlorine Chloralose • Endrin

Organophosphorus Phosacetim

Metabolic poisons Bromethalin • Fluoroacetamide • 1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol (Gliftor) • Sodium fluoroacetate

Other α-Naphthylthiourea • Norbormide • Pyrinuron • Scilliroside

v · d · ePest control: herbicides

Anilides/Anilines acetochlor · alachlor · asulam · butachlor · diethatyl · diflufenican · dimethenamid · flamprop · metazachlor · metolachlor · pendimethalin · pretilachlor · propachlor · propanil · trifluralin

Aromatic acids aminopyralid · chloramben · clopyralid · dicamba · picloram · pyrithiobac · quinclorac · quinmerac

Arsenicals cacodylic acid · copper arsenate · DSMA · MSMA

Organophosphorus bensulide · bilanafos · ethephon · fosamine · glufosinate · glyphosate · piperophos

Phenoxy 2,4-D · 2,4-DB · dichlorprop · fenoprop · MCPA · MCPB · 2,4,5-T

Pyridines dithiopyr · fluroxypyr · imazapyr · thiazopyr · triclopyr

Quaternary diquat · MPP · paraquat

Triazines ametryn · atrazine · cyanazine · hexazinone · prometon · prometryn · propazine · simazine · simetryn · terbuthylazine · terbutryn

Ureas chlortoluron · DCMU · metsulfuron-methyl · monolinuron • tebuthiuron

Others 3-AT · bromoxynil · clomazone · DCBN · dinoseb · juglone · mesotrione · methazole · metham sodium · sulfentrazone

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